The Hundred Years’ War was a prolonged series of conflicts waged between the kingdoms of England and France from 1337 to 1453. Despite its name, the war spanned 116 years, consisting of several intermittent phases of warfare, truces, and political intrigue. The conflict had far-reaching consequences for the monarchies of both countries, reshaping the political, military, and social landscapes of late medieval Europe. It was not a continuous war but a complex and evolving struggle over territorial claims, dynastic legitimacy, feudal loyalties, and national identity.
1. Background and Causes
The roots of the Hundred Years’ War lie in the intricate feudal and dynastic relationships between England and France. After the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, English kings retained large holdings in France. By the early 14th century, these French territories, particularly Gascony, remained under English control but were technically held as fiefs from the French king — a situation that caused ongoing tension.
The direct causes of the war included:
- Dynastic Claim to the French Throne: In 1328, Charles IV of France died without a male heir. The closest relative through the male line was Philip of Valois, who became Philip VI. However, Edward III of England, Charles IV’s nephew through his mother Isabella (a French princess), claimed the throne based on his lineage. French nobles rejected his claim, favoring Philip VI and invoking Salic Law, which barred inheritance through the female line.
- Control of French Lands: England sought to retain its French possessions, while France aimed to reclaim them. This territorial rivalry was a key component of the war.
- Economic Tensions: Trade, especially in wool from England to Flanders (modern-day Belgium), became a source of conflict. Flanders relied economically on English wool, but France sought greater control over the region.
- Feudal Complications: English kings were technically vassals of the French king for their lands in France, which created diplomatic friction. Edward III’s refusal to pay homage to Philip VI in 1337 led to the official outbreak of hostilities.
2. The War Begins: Edwardian Phase (1337–1360)
The initial phase of the war saw a series of English victories.
- Battle of Sluys (1340): A major naval victory for Edward III, allowing England to control the English Channel.
- Battle of Crécy (1346): A decisive English victory showcasing the effectiveness of the longbow against French cavalry. It marked the decline of traditional knightly warfare.
- Siege of Calais (1347): Edward captured the strategic port of Calais, which would remain in English hands for over two centuries.
- Battle of Poitiers (1356): The Black Prince, Edward’s son, captured the French King John II, leading to political instability in France.
These victories culminated in the Treaty of Brétigny (1360), by which Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne in exchange for expanded territorial rights in Aquitaine. However, the treaty failed to bring lasting peace.
3. French Recovery: Caroline Phase (1369–1389)
This phase, named after King Charles V of France (“Charles the Wise”), saw a significant French resurgence.
- Under the leadership of Charles V and his skilled general Bertrand du Guesclin, the French adopted a more cautious, guerrilla-style strategy that gradually recaptured many territories lost to the English.
- England, under Edward III and the Black Prince, began to suffer from internal divisions and financial strain. The deaths of both leaders by 1376–77 further weakened English resolve.
By 1380, France had regained much of the land lost earlier in the war. The conflict then entered a period of relative peace due to domestic issues in both kingdoms.
4. Renewal and Crisis: Lancastrian Phase (1415–1453)
The war was reignited under Henry V of England, a charismatic and ambitious ruler determined to assert England’s claim to the French crown.
- Battle of Agincourt (1415): One of England’s most famous victories. Despite being outnumbered, Henry V’s forces used the longbow and muddy terrain to defeat the French nobility, inflicting massive casualties.
- Treaty of Troyes (1420): Following Agincourt, this treaty recognized Henry V as heir to the French throne and regent of France. He married Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI. Their son, Henry VI, was to inherit both kingdoms.
However, both Henry V and Charles VI died in 1422, leaving infant Henry VI as king of England and nominal king of France. This opened the door for renewed conflict over succession and sovereignty.
5. The Rise of Joan of Arc and French Revival (1429–1453)
France’s fortunes changed dramatically with the emergence of Joan of Arc, a young peasant girl claiming to have divine visions.
- In 1429, Joan inspired French troops and led the relief of Orléans, a turning point in the war. Her support bolstered the legitimacy of Charles VII, who was crowned in Reims later that year.
- Joan was captured by the Burgundians (French allies of the English) and burned at the stake in 1431. Her martyrdom became a powerful symbol of French resistance.
After Joan’s death, the French began a slow but determined military recovery. Under Charles VII, France reorganized its military and gained technological advantages, such as the use of artillery.
- The Battle of Castillon (1453) marked the final major engagement of the war. The French decisively defeated the English, who lost Gascony, their last major holding in France except for Calais.
The Hundred Years’ War effectively ended in 1453, though no formal peace treaty was signed.
6. Consequences of the Hundred Years’ War
For France:
- The war devastated the French countryside, economy, and population, particularly during the early phases.
- However, it led to increased royal authority. Charles VII’s reforms laid the foundation for a centralized French monarchy.
- National identity grew stronger, as the concept of being “French” gained prominence over regional and feudal loyalties.
For England:
- The war’s end saw the loss of nearly all English holdings in France.
- Enormous war debts and internal divisions weakened the monarchy.
- The War of the Roses (1455–1487), a dynastic conflict between rival branches of the royal family, followed shortly after the war’s conclusion.
Military Evolution:
- The war signaled the decline of the chivalric code and the dominance of heavily armored knights.
- The longbow, cannon, and early gunpowder weapons changed the nature of warfare.
- Professional standing armies began to replace feudal levies.
Social Impact:
- Both nations experienced famine, plague, and population decline (exacerbated by the Black Death during the mid-14th century).
- The war disrupted the feudal economy, contributing to the decline of serfdom and the rise of a more modern socioeconomic structure.
Conclusion
The Hundred Years’ War was more than a dynastic struggle; it was a defining conflict in European history that spurred the development of modern nations. For over a century, it shaped the identities, politics, and military strategies of England and France. Its battles, characters, and consequences had profound and lasting impacts — not only on the political map of Europe but on the way war was fought and how rulers justified their authority. From the glory of Agincourt to the inspiration of Joan of Arc, the Hundred Years’ War remains one of history’s most fascinating and transformative periods.
