On Christmas Day in the year 800 CE, in the majestic setting of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, an event occurred that would shape the trajectory of European history for centuries to come. Charles the Great, better known as Charlemagne, was crowned Emperor of the Romans by Pope Leo III, a momentous occasion that symbolized the fusion of Roman, Christian, and Germanic traditions. This coronation not only marked the revival of the Western Roman Empire in a new form but also laid the foundations for what would later be known as the Holy Roman Empire. This essay explores the historical background, political significance, and lasting legacy of Charlemagne’s coronation and reign.
I. Historical Context: The Collapse and Fragmentation of the Roman West
The Western Roman Empire had fallen in 476 CE, leaving a power vacuum in Europe. In its place, various barbarian kingdoms arose, including the Visigoths in Spain, the Ostrogoths and later Lombards in Italy, the Anglo-Saxons in England, and the Franks in Gaul. These kingdoms adopted many Roman customs but were often in conflict and lacked centralized authority.
During the centuries following the fall of Rome, the Christian Church, particularly the Papacy, grew in influence. The Pope in Rome became a central figure in spiritual and, increasingly, temporal affairs. Meanwhile, in the East, the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire) continued to flourish under emperors like Justinian, who saw themselves as the true successors to the Roman tradition. However, as the 8th century progressed, the Byzantines lost their grip on Italy and were embroiled in theological controversies, such as the Iconoclast Crisis, weakening their position as the defenders of Christianity in the West.
II. The Rise of the Carolingians and Charlemagne
The Franks, a Germanic people settled in modern-day France and western Germany, emerged as the most powerful of the post-Roman kingdoms. Under the Merovingian dynasty, they had converted to Christianity in the 5th century. But by the 8th century, real power lay with the Mayors of the Palace, officials who governed in the kings’ names.
In 751 CE, Pepin the Short, father of Charlemagne, deposed the last Merovingian king and assumed the throne with the Pope’s blessing. This act cemented an important alliance between the Frankish monarchy and the Roman Church. When Pepin died in 768, his kingdom was divided between his sons, Charlemagne (Charles) and Carloman. Carloman died in 771, leaving Charlemagne as the sole ruler of the Franks.
Charlemagne proved to be an energetic and capable leader. Over the next several decades, he expanded his realm through military conquest, diplomacy, and religious conversion. His empire came to include modern-day France, Germany, the Low Countries, Switzerland, Austria, and northern Italy.
III. Expansion and Christianization
Charlemagne’s reign was marked by an ambitious program of territorial expansion and religious consolidation. He waged numerous campaigns:
- Against the Lombards in Italy, ultimately conquering their kingdom and becoming their king in 774.
- Against the Saxons in northern Germany, in a brutal campaign of conquest and forced Christianization that lasted over 30 years.
- Against the Avars in Central Europe, weakening their power and bringing more lands into the Christian fold.
- Against Muslim forces in northern Spain, including the ill-fated expedition that led to the legendary Battle of Roncevaux Pass (778), commemorated in the epic The Song of Roland.
Charlemagne saw himself as the protector of Christianity and used his authority to promote church reform, education, and ecclesiastical unity. He supported the Church materially and institutionally, granting land, building monasteries, and ensuring the enforcement of Christian doctrine.
IV. The Coronation of 800 CE
The immediate circumstances surrounding Charlemagne’s coronation involved political intrigue in Rome. In 799, Pope Leo III was attacked by rivals and fled to Charlemagne for protection. Charlemagne restored him to power and presided over his return to Rome.
On December 25, 800, during Christmas Mass at St. Peter’s Basilica, Pope Leo III placed a crown upon Charlemagne’s head and proclaimed him “Emperor of the Romans” (Imperator Romanorum). This was a symbolic act that carried immense historical and political significance:
- It signaled the revival of the Western Roman Empire, which had ceased to exist over three centuries earlier.
- It emphasized the independence of the Western Church from the Byzantine Empire.
- It established the precedent that emperorship could be bestowed by the Pope, implying papal authority over secular rulers.
According to later sources, Charlemagne was surprised by the coronation and may have objected to the idea that the Pope could make him emperor. Nevertheless, he accepted the title and began using it diplomatically and ceremonially.
V. The Significance of the Title “Holy Roman Emperor”
Though the term “Holy Roman Empire” was not used until later, Charlemagne’s coronation laid the ideological foundation for this entity. The fusion of Roman imperial tradition, Christian religious authority, and Germanic kingship gave rise to a new political model:
- The Emperor was seen as the defender of Christendom and the protector of the Church.
- The empire represented the unity of Christian Europe, a vision known as Christendom.
- The partnership between the Pope and the Emperor defined medieval political theology, with ongoing tension between spiritual and secular power.
Charlemagne’s imperial title complicated relations with the Byzantine Empire, whose rulers considered themselves the sole legitimate Roman emperors. However, by 812, Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rangabe recognized Charlemagne’s title, likely in exchange for diplomatic concessions.
VI. The Carolingian Renaissance
One of the most important aspects of Charlemagne’s reign was his promotion of learning and culture, often referred to as the Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne saw education as essential to effective governance and Christian life.
He established schools in monasteries and cathedrals, encouraged the study of Latin and classical texts, and commissioned scholars like Alcuin of York to lead educational reform. Scribes developed the Carolingian minuscule, a clear and legible script that became the standard for copying texts in the Middle Ages.
This cultural revival preserved much of classical knowledge and laid the groundwork for the later intellectual flowering of medieval Europe.
VII. Charlemagne’s Legacy
Charlemagne died in 814 CE and was buried in Aachen, his favored capital. His empire was inherited by his son, Louis the Pious, and later divided among his grandsons by the Treaty of Verdun (843), which eventually gave rise to the modern nations of France and Germany.
The title of Holy Roman Emperor lapsed for several decades but was revived in 962 when Otto I of Germany was crowned by Pope John XII, inaugurating the Holy Roman Empire that would last until 1806.
Charlemagne’s reign left a lasting imprint:
- He became a symbol of European unity and Christian kingship.
- He was canonized in 1165 (though not officially by the Church), and his memory was celebrated in medieval literature and legend.
- The idea of a Christian Empire, governed by an emperor in cooperation with the Church, remained central to medieval European politics.
- Modern leaders, from Napoleon to the European Union, have evoked Charlemagne as a model of unity and leadership.
Conclusion
Charlemagne’s coronation as Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE marked a pivotal moment in European history. It revived the idea of a Western Roman Empire, reinforced the bond between the Church and monarchy, and set the ideological tone for the Middle Ages. Charlemagne’s conquests, reforms, and cultural initiatives shaped the political and spiritual contours of Europe for generations. As both a warrior and a patron of learning, his legacy endures as one of the most remarkable rulers of the medieval world.
